Understanding and Overcoming Hate
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  • Understanding Hate
    • Introduction
    • What is Hate? >
      • Hate as an Emotion >
        • Papers: Hate as an Emotion
      • Hate as a Belief >
        • Papers: Hate as Belief
      • Hate as an Act >
        • Papers: Hate as an Act
      • Hate as a Policy >
        • Papers: Hate as Policy
    • The Roots of Hate >
      • Early Imprints >
        • When Needs are Not Met
        • Papers; Not Meeting Needs
      • What Are We Doing To Our Children? >
        • Children in Dire Circumstances
      • Effects of Trauma and Abuse >
        • Papers: Stress Effects
        • Papers: Trauma Abuse Effects
        • Links: Stress, Trauma Research
      • Causes and Effects of Bullying
      • Trauma, bigotry, violence linked
      • Authoritarian Upbringings >
        • Papers: Authoritarian Roots
        • Papers: SDO and Authoritarianism
      • Absolutism and Insularity >
        • Papers: Absolutism
      • Papers: Early Roots of Prejudice
      • Impaired Cognition >
        • Papers: Impaired Cognition
      • The Violent Brain >
        • Papers: Violent Brain
      • Roots of Violence and Cruelty >
        • Chart: Powderkeg Formula
        • Papers: Roots of Violence
        • Articles and Blog Posts
      • Ghosts of the Past >
        • Ripples of revenge
        • Papers: Ghosts of the Past
    • How Hate Manifests >
      • Chart
      • Everyday Hate >
        • Papers: Social Rejection
        • Papers: Bullying
      • Social Injustice and Discrimination >
        • Papers: Discrimination
        • Papers: Inequality
        • Articles: Inequality Effects
        • Articles: Cognitive Exhaustion
        • "White" Privilege
      • Stereotyping and Caricature >
        • Papers: Stereotyping
        • Stereotyping
      • Prejudice, Racism and Bigotry >
        • Articles and Blog Posts
        • Papers: Prejudice Racism
        • Papers: Skin color and face
        • Papers: InGroup Outgroup
        • Papers: Implicit Bias
        • Evolutionary Issues >
          • More blog posts
      • Dehumanizing >
        • Views about the outsider
        • Papers: Dehumanizing
      • Hate Crimes >
        • Papers: Hate Crimes
      • Hate Groups >
        • Links: Hate Groups Research
        • Papers and news: Hate Groups
      • Abuse of Power >
        • Papers: Abuse of Power
        • Evil Men: Tyrants, Dictators
        • Blogs and news
        • Articles: SDO and RWA
      • Xenophobia >
        • Papers: Xenophobia
      • Collective Rage >
        • Papers: Collective Violence
      • Extremism >
        • Papers: Terrorism
        • Papers: Extremism
      • Cruelty on Mass Scale >
        • Links
        • Papers: Cruelty on mass scale
    • Hate in the News >
      • News: Hate in America
      • News: Hate Trends Worldwide
      • Extremism: Current Trends: News
      • Authoritarianism Trends
    • Group Influence >
      • Search for Belonging >
        • Papers: Search for Belonging
      • Social Cognition and Learning >
        • Papers: Fairness
        • Papers: Social Cognition
      • Group Think >
        • Papers: Intergroup Dynamics
        • Papers: Group Think
      • Status and Stigma >
        • Papers: Status and Stigma
      • Conformity >
        • Papers: Conformity
      • Obedience and Compliance >
        • Papers: Obedience
      • Bystander Effect
    • Social Defenses >
      • Papers: Social Defenses
      • System Justification >
        • Papers: System Justification
      • Projection >
        • Papers: Projection
      • Denial >
        • Papers: Denial
        • Examples of Denial
        • Papers: Denialism
      • Attribution and Comparison >
        • Attribution Fallacies
        • Papers: Attribution
      • Cognitive Dissonance >
        • Papers: Cognitive Dissonance
    • Fanning the Flames >
      • Media and Persuasion
      • Papers: Persuasion
      • Papers: Indoctrination
      • Papers: Hate Speech
      • Papers: Attitude change
      • News: Cyberhate
      • Links
      • Media Effects in the News
      • Persuasion: Blog Posts and Articles
    • How We Fool Ourselves >
      • Mechanisms: Cognitive Biases and Heuristics >
        • Papers: Brain Tricks
        • Biases: Blogs and Articles
        • Biases organized
      • On Being Wrong
      • Probability and Decision-Making Biases >
        • Papers and articles
      • Memory Distortions >
        • Papers: Memory illusions
      • Perceptual Illusions >
        • Papers: Perceptual Illusions
        • Illusions: Blog Posts and Articles
      • Self-Deception >
        • Papers: Self-deception
      • Delusion, Confabulation >
        • Papers: Delusions
        • Papers: False Beliefs
      • Conspiracy Theories
      • Papers: Neural mechanisms mystical states
      • Brain and Spirituality: Articles
    • Brain and Belief >
      • What is a Belief? >
        • Papers: Belief Formation
        • Papers: Automaticity
      • Perception and Processing >
        • Papers: Perception
      • Salience and Tagging >
        • Papers: Salience
        • Papers: Essentialism
      • Creating Categories >
        • Papers: Categorizing
      • Cognitive Unconscious
      • Embodied Cognition >
        • Papers: Embodied Cognition
      • Emotion Cognition Interplay >
        • Papers
      • Creating a Story about the World >
        • Papers: Story Creation
      • Investing in Cherished Beliefs >
        • Papers
      • Identifying Self with Belief >
        • Papers
      • Search for Meaning >
        • Papers: Meaning
    • Search for Certainty >
      • Dogmatic Beliefs
      • Belief Perseverance
      • Papers: Feeling of Knowing
      • Papers: Rigid Dogmatic thinking
    • Index: All Biases, Distortions and Influences
  • Overcoming Hate
    • Overview of Topics
    • Introduction
    • Prevention >
      • Meeting Formative Needs of Children >
        • Papers: Child and Brain Development
        • Papers: nurturing, attachment bonding
        • Links: Development
      • Promoting Parental readiness >
        • Papers
        • Links: Helping Parents
      • Supporting Healthy Families >
        • Papers
      • Enhancing Resilience >
        • Papers
      • Cultivating Empathy and Conscience >
        • Roots of Morality
        • Empathic Imagination
        • Mirror Neurons
        • Empathy Programs
        • Links: Empathy
      • All papers: Morality and Empathy >
        • Papers: Roots of Morality and Conscience
        • Papers: Empathy Altruism Compassion
        • Articles, Posts: Empathy
        • Papers: Moral Decision-Making
        • Papers: Moral Cognition
        • Papers: Mirror Neurons
        • Articles: Prosocial Behavior
      • Long-Term Social Investment >
        • Papers
    • Education >
      • Enhancing Emotional and Social Skills >
        • Papers: Emotional Intelligence
        • Papers: Social Cooperation
        • Links: emotional development
      • Building Reflective Minds >
        • Critical Thinking >
          • Papers: Critical Thinking
        • Metacognition >
          • Papers: Metacognition
        • Perceiving Bias >
          • Papers: Perceiving Bias
        • Creative and Lateral Thinking >
          • Papers: Creative Thinking
        • Mindfulness >
          • Papers: Mindfulness
          • Blogs and articles
        • Interoception >
          • Papers: Interoception
        • Fluid and Flexible >
          • Papers: Fluid Intelligence
      • Cross-cultural Awareness >
        • Links: Cross-Cultural
        • Papers: Cultural Neuroscience
        • Articles: Cultural Awareness
      • Media Awareness >
        • Links
        • Papers
      • Teaching an Honest History >
        • Papers
        • Links: Honest History
      • Civic Engagement and Social Responsibility >
        • Papers
      • Ethics Training >
        • Papers
      • Whole Child Learning >
        • Papers
    • Intervention >
      • Social Support and Inclusion >
        • Papers: Social Support
      • Helping Children in Dire Conditions >
        • Papers: Helping children
      • Preventing Violence and Bullying >
        • Anti-bullying programs and resources
        • Helping At-Risk Kids
        • Papers on helping kids
      • Standing Up To Prejudice, Racism, and Bigotry >
        • Papers: Reducing Prejudice
        • Articles: Reducing Prejudice
        • Papers: Stopping hate crimes
        • Papers: Offsetting Extremism
        • Programs and Projects
        • Hatebraker Examples: News
      • Training Our Protectors >
        • Papers: Training Protectors
      • Healing the Hurt >
        • Papers: Healing Hurt
        • Articles and Blog Posts
      • Educating Our Leaders >
        • Papers: Educating Leaders
      • Resolving Conflict >
        • Papers: Resolving Conflict
        • Programs and articles
      • Israel-Palestine >
        • Papers: Israel-Palestine
        • News and blog posts
      • Promoting Dignity >
        • Links: Human Rights
        • Papers: Human Rights
      • Healing the Ghosts of the Past >
        • Papers: Reconciliation
      • Restorative Justice >
        • Papers: Restorative Justice
      • Confronting Mass Atrocities >
        • Papers: Confronting War Crimes
    • Social Advances >
      • Charters and Declarations
      • Slideshow: Social Advances
      • Links: social advances history
      • Timelines: Social Advances
    • More Solutions >
      • Classroom Tools
      • Organizations
      • Programs and Projects
      • Effective Models
  • Resources
    • Academic Papers: Topic Index
    • Background: Sciences Related to Hate >
      • Related Sciences of Hate
      • Social Psychology Subtopics
      • Brain and Life Sciences
      • New Research Tools
      • Links: Brain Mapping
      • Process of Science
      • What is Good Science?
      • Links: Understanding Science
      • Papers: About Good Science
    • Science Links
    • Timelines of Knowledge >
      • Index of all Pioneers
      • Timeline: Early Pioneers
      • Timeline: Group Psychology
      • Timeline: Prejudice
      • Timeline: Persuasion
      • Timeline: Social Psychology Pioneers
      • Timeline: Authoritarianism
      • Timeline: Scientific bias
    • Researchers and Experts >
      • Developmental Foundations
      • Moral Cognition, Empathy
      • Search for Meaning
      • Search for Belonging
      • Search for Certainty
      • Ghosts of the Past
      • Breaking Cycle of Hate: Solutions
    • Other Research and Studies >
      • Syllabi
      • Bibliographies
      • Our Syllabi
    • Recommendations >
      • Books: Topic Overview >
        • Development
        • Empathy, Morality
        • Brain and Belief
        • Tricks of Mind
        • Stress, Trauma, Violence
        • Prejudice, Racism, Stereotyping
        • Overcoming Prejudice, Racism
        • Historical Insight
        • Human Rights Abuses
        • Seminal Works
      • Journals and Magazines
      • Films and Videos
    • Timeline of Hate >
      • Links: Historical Injustice
      • History of Hate in America: articles
      • Index of Historical Injustice
  • Tools
    • Links: Games and Exercises
    • Self-Awareness Tools >
      • What Parents Can do
      • Learning about our Labels
    • Blog
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Decision-making Biases

  • Anchoring
  • Choice-supportive bias
  • Attentional Bias 
  • Normalcy bias
  • Outcome bias
  • Pseudocertainty effect
  • Irrational escalation
  • Denomination effect
  • Status quo bias
  • Loss aversion
  • Post-purchase rationalization
  • Endowment effect
  • Unit bias  

Probability Fallacies 

  • Gambler's fallacy
  • Frequency illusion
  • Base rate neglect
  • Conjunction fallacy
  • Subadditivity effect
  • Neglect of probability
  • Money illusion
  • Innumeracy
  • Contrast effect  
  • Zero-risk bias
  • Distinction bias
  • Well travelled road effect

Responses to Evidence

  • Confirmation bias
  • Experimenter's bias
  • Observer-expectancy effect
  • Congruence bias  
  • Backfire effect  
  • Semmelweis reflex
  • Forward Bias
Papers and Articles

Decision-making biases


Anchoring 

Tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on one salient trait or piece of information when making decisions    
  • Epley, N., & Gilovich, T. (2006). The anchoring and adjustment heuristic: Why the adjustments are insufficient. Psychological Science, 17, 311-318. 
  • Epley, N., & Gilovich, T. (2005). When effortful thinking influences judgmental anchoring: Differential effects of forewarning and incentives on self-generated and externally provided anchors. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 18, 199-212. 

Attentional Bias 

Tendency of emotionally salient stimuli in one's environment to preferentially draw and hold attention 

Choice-supportive bias   

Tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were    
Mather, M.; Shafir, E.; Johnson, M.K. (2000),"Misrememberance of options past: Source monitoring and choice". Psychological Science 11: 132-138    

Irrational escalation   

People justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong. See Sunk Cost Fallacy below.
Your Mind and Your Money: 
Irrational Escalation of Commitment
Jan 29th, 2010 by Roger, the Amateur Financier.

Sunk Cost Fallacy

After putting money, energy and time into an investment, project, or a product that does not produce the expected outcome, or loses value, we tend to rationalize the use of our money as worthwhile.
Your Mind and Your Money: 
Sunk Cost Fallacy
Jan 25th, 2010 by Roger, the Amateur Financier.

Outcome Bias    

Tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made.

Normalcy bias

Refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.

Pseudocertainty effect

Tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes
 Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1986). Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions. The Journal of Business, 59, S251-S278.

Denomination effect 

Tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g. coins) rather than large amounts (e.g. bills).
Why We Spend Coins Faster Than Bills by Chana Joffe-Walt. All Things Considered, 12 May 2009.

Distinction bias    

Tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.
  • Hsee, C.K. (1998). "Less is better: When low-value options are valued more highly than high-value options". Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 11 (2): 107–121. 
  • Hsee, C.K.; Leclerc, F. (1998). "Will products look more attractive when presented separately or together?". The Journal of Consumer Research 25 (2): 175–186. 
  • Hsee, C.K.; Zhang, J. (2004). "Distinction bias: Misprediction and mischoice due to joint evaluation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (5): 680–695.

Focusing effect    

Tendency to place too much importance on one aspect of an event; causes error in accurately predicting the utility of a future outcome.
Kahneman, Daniel; Alan B. Krueger, David Schkade, Norbert Schwarz, Arthur A. Stone (2006-06-30), "Would you be happier if you were richer? A focusing illusion", Science 312 (5782): 1908–10

Status quo bias

Tendency to like things to stay relatively the same (see also loss aversion, endowment effect, and system justification). 
Samuelson, William; Richard Zeckhauser (1988). "Status Quo Bias in Decision Making". Journal of Risk and Uncertainty: 7–59.

Information bias    

Tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action.

Endowment effect    

"People often demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it".
(Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler 1991, p. 193) Richard Thaler coined the term "endowment effect."

Post-purchase rationalization

Tendency to use rational argument to convince oneself that a purchase was a good value.

Loss Aversion

"The disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it". 
(see also Sunk cost effects and Endowment effect).
(Kahneman, Knetsch & Thaler 1991, p. 193) 
Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky coined the term "loss aversion."

Probability


Gambler's fallacy

Tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged.  An erroneous conceptualization of the Law of large numbers. For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads."

Frequency illusion

"The Baader-Meinhof 
phenomenon".
Illusion in which a word, a name or other thing that has recently come to one's attention suddenly appears "everywhere" with improbable frequency (see also recency illusion). 

Base rate neglect  

Tendency to base judgments on specifics, ignoring general statistical information

Illusory correlation   

Inaccurately perceiving a relationship between two events, either because of prejudice or selective processing of information

Conjunction fallacy

  

Tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than general ones.
Fisk, John E. (2004), "Conjunction fallacy", in Pohl, Rüdiger F.,Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory, Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 23–42

Subadditivity effect

Tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts.

Contrast effect 

The enhancement or diminishing of a weight or other measurement when compared with a recently observed contrasting object.
Plous, Scott (1993), The Psychology of Judgment and Decision Making, New York: McGraw-Hill

Neglect of probability

Tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.

Innumeracy

 

Inability to reason intuitively with the greater orders of magnitude.

Money Illusion

Tendency to concentrate on the nominal (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power. 
Shafir, Eldar; Diamond, Peter; Tversky, Amos (2000), "Money Illusion", Choices, values, and frames, Cambridge University Press, pp. 335–355

  


Well travelled road effect

Underestimation of the duration taken to traverse oft-traveled routes and over-estimate the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.

Zero-risk bias

Preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.

Responses to Evidence


Confirmation bias    

The tendency to interpret data in a way that confirms our premises and opinions and ignore evidence that refutes them.    
Oswald, Margit E.; Grosjean, Stefan (2004), "Confirmation Bias", in Pohl, Rüdiger F., Cognitive Illusions: A Handbook on Fallacies and Biases in Thinking, Judgement and Memory, Hove, UK: Psychology Press, pp. 79–96  

Experimenter's or 
Expectation bias   
  

Tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations.

Observer-expectancy effect

When a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it 
benefits_of_observer_effects..pdf
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Congruence bias

Tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, in contrast to tests of possible alternative hypotheses. Occurs due to people's overreliance on direct testing of a given hypothesis, and a neglect of indirect testing.

Backfire effect

Evidence disconfirming our beliefs only strengthens them.

Semmelweis reflex

Tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm. Refers to resistance of obstetricians to wash their hands when delivering babies in spite of evidence collected by Dr. Semmelweis that the main cause of postpartum infections was due to bacteria transmitted from the hands of the doctors to mother during labor.
Edwards, W. (1968). Conservatism in human information processing. In: B. Kleinmutz (Ed.), Formal Representation of Human Judgment. (pp. 17-52). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Forward bias

Tendency to create models based on past data which are validated only against that past data.

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Click here for list of Media and Persuasion biases

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Click here for review of Memory and Perceptual distortions