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Assessing parental empathy: a role for empathy in child attachment
Jessica A. Stern, Jessica L. Borelli & Patricia A. Smiley. Attachment & Human Development Volume 17, Issue 1, 2015, pages 1 - 22. DOI: 10.1080/14616734.2014.969749 Although empathy has been associated with helping behavior and relationship quality, little research has evaluated the role of parental empathy in the development of parent–child relationships. The current study (1) establishes preliminary validity of the Parental Affective and Cognitive Empathy Scale (PACES), a method for coding empathy from parents’ narrative responses to the Parent Development Interview – Revised for School-Aged Children (PDI-R-SC), and (2) tests a theoretical model of empathy and attachment. Sixty caregivers and their children completed a battery of questionnaire and interview measures, including the PDI-R-SC and the Child Attachment Interview (CAI). Caregivers’ interview narratives were scored for empathy using PACES. PACES showed good interrater reliability and good convergent validity with a self-report empathy measure. Parent empathy was positively related to child attachment security (using a continuous score for narrative coherence) and emotional openness on the CAI, as well as to child perceptions of parental warmth. Moreover, parent empathy mediated the relation between parents’ self-reported attachment style and their children’s attachment security. Implications for attachment theory and future directions for establishing scale validity are discussed. Cowell, Jason and Decety, Jean, The Neuroscience of Implicit Moral Evaluation and Its Relation to Generosity in Early Childhood, Current Biology (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.11.002
Prosocial behavior emerges early in development, and young children possess capacities for social and moral evaluations. In this study, Cowell and Decety explored their neural underpinnings in 3–5 year olds and how these predict actual generosity, exemplifying the potential of integrating development and neuroscience in refining moral theories. 
Toddlers' responsive imitation predicts preschool-age conscience.
David R Forman, Nazan Aksan, Grazyna Kochanska (2004) Psychological science 15 (10) p. 699-704
Infant Development : Perspectives from German Speaking Countries The Development of Empathy in Infants Empathy from a cognitivistic viewpoint
Doris Bischof-köhler (1991)
The Visible Empathy of Infants and Toddlers
Valerie Quann, Carol Anne Wien (2006) Young Children (July) p. 1-7
The Development of Empathy: How, When, and Why
Nicole M. McDonald, Daniel S. Messinger University of Miami
Oxytocin enhances amygdala-dependent, socially reinforced learning and emotional empathy in humans.
René Hurlemann, Alexandra Patin, Oezguer a Onur, Michael X Cohen, Tobias Baumgartner, Sarah Metzler, Isabel Dziobek, Juergen Gallinat, Michael Wagner, Wolfgang Maier, Keith M Kendrick (2010) The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience 30 (14) p. 4999-5007
Social Evaluation or Simple Association? Simple Associations May Explain Moral Reasoning in Infants
Scarf D, Imuta K, Colombo M, Hayne H (2012) PLoS ONE 7(8): e42698. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042698 The Role of Orbitofrontal Cortex in Processing Empathy Stories in 4- to 8-Year-Old Children
Brink TT, Urton K, Held D, Kirilina E, Hofmann MJ, Klann-Delius G, Jacobs AM and Kuchinke L (2011) Frontiers of Psychology 2:80. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00080
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